Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis
In a quantitative रिसर्च we have to formulate hypotheses and test them. A hypothesis is a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts (Kothari).
Types of Hypotheses
a. Null hypothesis (Ho)
Ho = Development Activists are positive to validation.
b. Alternative hypothesis (Ha)
Ha = DA are not positive to validation
- If sample results do not support null hypothesis, we should conclude that something else is also true. What we conclude rejecting the null hypothesis is known as alternative hypothesis.
- Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which one wishes to prove. And the null hypothesis is the one which one wishes to disprove.
For example:
- Ho: Educational Stakeholders are negative to validation
- Ha: Educational Stakeholders are positive to validation.
The level of significance
- It is always some percentage (usually 5%) which should be chosen with great care, thought and reason. In case we take the significance level at five percent, then this implies that Ho will be rejected when sampling result has a less than 0.05 probability of occurring.
- The five percent level of significance means that researcher is willing to take as much as 5 percent risk of rejecting the Ho when it happens to be true.
Hypotheses of my research

Ho: Educational stakeholders perceive the possibility of identifying, recognizing and validating non-formal and informal learning to open up avenues for lifelong and continuing education in Nepal negatively.
Ha: Educational stakeholders perceive the possibility of identifying, recognizing and validating non-formal and informal learning to open up avenues for lifelong and continuing education in Nepal negatively.
Theme wise hypotheses
a. Theme I: Providing options for learning (OFL)
Ho: ES have negative attitude towards providing different options (formal, non-formal and informal) for learning to learners.
Ha: ES have positive attitude towards providing different options (formal, non-formal and informal) for learning to learners.
b. Theme II: Establishing parity of esteem (POE)
Ho: ES have negative attitude towards establishing parity among three forms of learning (formal, non-formal and informal).
Ha: ES have positive attitude towards establishing parity among three forms of learning (formal, non-formal and informal).
c. Theme III: Developing a national qualifications framework (NQF)
Ho: ES have negative attitude towards developing a national qualifications framework
Ha: ES have positive attitude towards developing a national qualifications framework.
Respondent wise hypotheses
a. Development Activists
Ho: DA perceive the possibility of identifying, recognizing and validating non-formal and informal learning to open up avenues for lifelong and continuing education in Nepal negatively.
Ha: DA perceive the possibility of identifying, recognizing and validating non-formal and informal learning to open up avenues for lifelong and continuing education in Nepal negatively.
b. Educational Administrators
Ho: Educational Administrators perceive the possibility of identifying, recognizing and validating non-formal and informal learning to open up avenues for lifelong and continuing education in Nepal negatively.
Ha: Educational Administrators perceive the possibility of identifying, recognizing and validating non-formal and informal learning to open up avenues for lifelong and continuing education in Nepal negatively.
c. Policy Actors
Ho: Policy Actors perceive the possibility of identifying, recognizing and validating non-formal and informal learning to open up avenues for lifelong and continuing education in Nepal negatively.
Ha: Policy Actors perceive the possibility of identifying, recognizing and validating non-formal and informal learning to open up avenues for lifelong and continuing education in Nepal negatively.
d. University Professor
Ho: University Professor perceive the possibility of identifying, recognizing and validating non-formal and informal learning to open up avenues for lifelong and continuing education in Nepal negatively.
Ha: University Professor perceive the possibility of identifying, recognizing and validating non-formal and informal learning to open up avenues for lifelong and continuing education in Nepal negatively.
Respondent and theme wise hypotheses
1. DA with OFL
Ho: DA have negative attitude towards providing different options (formal, non-formal and informal) for learning to learners.
Ha: DA have positive attitude towards providing different options (formal, non-formal and informal) for learning to learners.
2. DA with POE
Ho: DA have negative attitude towards establishing parity among three forms of learning (formal, non-formal and informal).
Ha: DA have positive attitude towards establishing parity among three forms of learning (formal, non-formal and informal).
3. DA with NQF
Ho: DA have negative attitude towards developing a national qualifications framework
Ha: DA have positive attitude towards developing a national qualifications framework.
4. EA with OFL
Ho: EA have negative attitude towards providing different options (formal, non-formal and informal) for learning to learners.
Ha: EA have positive attitude towards providing different options (formal, non-formal and informal) for learning to learners.
5. EA with POE
Ho: EA have negative attitude towards establishing parity among three forms of learning (formal, non-formal and informal).
Ha: EA have positive attitude towards establishing parity among three forms of learning (formal, non-formal and informal).
6. EA with NQF
Ho: EA have negative attitude towards developing a national qualifications framework
Ha: EA have positive attitude towards developing a national qualifications framework.
7. PA with OFL
Ho: PA have negative attitude towards providing different options (formal, non-formal and informal) for learning to learners.
Ha: PA have positive attitude towards providing different options (formal, non-formal and informal) for learning to learners.
8. PA with POE
Ho: PA have negative attitude towards establishing parity among three forms of learning (formal, non-formal and informal).
Ha: PA have positive attitude towards establishing parity among three forms of learning (formal, non-formal and informal).
9. PA with NQF
Ho: DA have negative attitude towards developing a national qualifications framework
Ha: DA have positive attitude towards developing a national qualifications framework.
10. UP with OFL
Ho: UP have negative attitude towards providing different options (formal, non-formal and informal) for learning to learners.
Ha: UP have positive attitude towards providing different options (formal, non-formal and informal) for learning to learners.
11. UP with POE
Ho: UP have negative attitude towards establishing parity among three forms of learning (formal, non-formal and informal).
Ha: UP have positive attitude towards establishing parity among three forms of learning (formal, non-formal and informal).
12. UP with NQF
Ho: DA have negative attitude towards developing a national qualifications framework
Ha: DA have positive attitude towards developing a national qualifications framework.
Comparison among the type of respondents
Ho: There is a significant difference among the opinion of DA, EA, PA and UP regarding validation.
Ha: There is a no significant difference among the opinion of DA, EA, PA and UP regarding validation.
Comparison among the type of respondents regarding themes
a. Theme I: Providing options for learning
Ho: There is a significant difference among the opinion of DA, EA, PA and UP regarding OFL.
Ha: There is a no significant difference among the opinion of DA, EA, PA and UP regarding OFL.
b. Theme I: Establishing parity of esteem
Ho: There is a significant difference among the opinion of DA, EA, PA and UP regarding POE.
Ha: There is a no significant difference among the opinion of DA, EA, PA and UP regarding POE.
c. Theme I: Developing a national qualifications framework
Ho: There is a significant difference among the opinion of DA, EA, PA and UP regarding NQF.
Ha: There is a no significant difference among the opinion of DA, EA, PA and UP regarding NQF.
Test of Hypotheses
There are several tests of hypotheses (also known as the test of significance) for the purpose of testing hypotheses. They can be classified as:
a. Parametric tests or standard tests of hypotheses
b. Non-parametric tests or distribution-free tests of hypotheses
- Parametric tests usually assume certain properties of the present population from which we draw samples. Assumptions like observations come from a normal population, sample size is large, and assumptions about the population parameters like mean, variance, etc. must hold good before parametric test can be used.
- But there are situations when the researcher can’t or doesn’t want to make such assumptions. In such situations we use statistical methods for testing hypotheses which are called non-parametric tests because such tests do not depend on any assumptions about the parameters of the parent population.
While analyzing quantitative data a number of tests can be used:
When population is normal or sample size is large (i.e. n>30) or population variance is known then we have to use z-test.
When population is normal and sample size is small (i.e. n<30) and population variance is unknown then we have to use t-test.
When we want to test the equality of variance of two normal populations, we make use of F-test based on F-distribution
One-way ANOVA is used to test for differences among two or more independent groups.
By comparing the observed value of F with the corresponding table value, we can infer whether the difference between the variance of samples could have arisen due to sampling fluctuation.
If the calculated value of F is greater than table value of F at certain level of significance and degree of freedom, we regard the F-ratio as significant. On the other hand if the calculated value of F is smaller than its table value, we conclude that F-ratio is not significant. If F-ratio is considered not significant we accept the null hypothesis; but if F-ratio is considered significant we then reject the null hypothesis or accept the alternative hypothesis.